Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Acute Kidney (Renal) Injury (AKI)

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Included In This Lesson

Study Tools For Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Acute Kidney (Renal) Injury (AKI)

Intrarenal Causes of Acute Kidney Injury (Mnemonic)
Acute Kidney Injury Pathochart (Cheatsheet)
Abdominal Pain – Assessment (Cheatsheet)
Glomerulus (Image)
Kidney Damage (Image)
Anatomy of the Nephron (Image)
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Outline

Overview

  1. Sudden onset renal damage
  2. Loss of renal function due to poor circulation or renal cell damage
  3. Usually reversible may resolve on its own
  4. Can lead to permanent damage if not reversed quickly

Pathophysiology

Sudden decline in the function of the kidneys usually from decreased blood flow to the kidneys or injury to the kidney from inflammation and toxins. Acute kidney injury can be reversed if diagnosed and treated early but can progress to renal failure.

Nursing Points

General

  1. Causes
    1. Prerenal: decreased blood flow to kidneys, accounts for majority of cases
      1. Hypotension
      2. Hypovolemia
      3. ↓ Cardiac Output (i.e. Heart Failure, Shock)
    2. Intrarenal: damage within the kidney itself
      1. Tubular necrosis
      2. Infection
      3. Obstruction
      4. Contrast dye
      5. Nephrotoxic medications
    3. Postrenal: damage between the kidney and urethral meatus backs up, causing damage to kidneys
      1. Infection
      2. Calculi
      3. Obstruction
  2. Phases
    1. Onset
      1. Note a decrease in baseline urine output
    2. Oliguric
      1. Decreased urine output <400 mL/day
      2. Sickest phase
      3. ↑ BUN/Creatinine
      4. ↓ Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
    3. Diuretic
      1. Beginning to recover
      2. Gradual urine output increase followed by diuresis
    4. Recovery
      1. Decreased edema
      2. Electrolytes normalize
      3. GFR increases

Assessment

  1. Signs and symptoms result from kidneys inability to regulate fluid and electrolytes
  2. Azotemia (retention of nitrogen wastes in blood)
    1. ↑ BUN/Creatinine
  3. ↓ Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
  4. Decreased urine output in oliguric phase
    1. Should see increase in diuretic phase
  5. Signs of volume overload (HTN, peripheral edema, pulmonary edema)
  6. s/s infection if that was the source
  7. Metabolic acidosis
    1. Kidneys not holding HCO3
  8. Electrolyte abnormalities
    1. ↑ Potassium
    2. ↓ Sodium
    3. ↑ Phosphate
    4. ↓ Calcium

Therapeutic Management

  1. Oliguric Phase
    1. Restrict fluid intake
    2. Identify & treat cause
    3. Diuretics
  2. Diuretic Phase
    1. Replace fluids and electrolytes
      1. Especially watch K+ & Na+ levels
  3. If not recovering, may need dialysis

Nursing Concepts

  1. Fluid & Electrolyte Balance
    1. Daily weights
    2. Strict I&O
    3. Monitor electrolytes and replace as needed
    4. Fluid restriction in oliguric phase
  2. Elimination
    1. Monitor urine output
      1. Normal = >30mL/hr
      2. Look for progression from oliguric to diuretic phase
    2. Monitor for s/s UTI
    3. Prepare patient for dialysis

Patient Education

  1. Avoid foods high in sodium or potassium
    1. Caution – salt substitutes made with potassium chloride
  2. Educate on fluid restriction
  3. s/s to report to nurse or provider, especially chest pain

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ADPIE Related Lessons

Related Nursing Process (ADPIE) Lessons for Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Acute Kidney (Renal) Injury (AKI)

Transcript

In this lesson we’re going to talk about acute kidney injury. As you can guess, this is when we have a sudden onset of kidney damage and the kidneys get injured acutely.

Acute Kidney Injury is a sudden loss of renal function.

It’s generally caused by a perfusion issue or damage to the kidney tissue itself.

You can see the bleeding and swelling within this kidney that has been damaged. You can imagine how hard it would be for a kidney with this kind of damage to do its job, right? Now, it’s usually reversible or resolves on its own in a week or two.

It can also be prevented, so think about that when we look at the causes here in a second. If we aren’t able to reverse it or it doesn’t resolve quickly, it can lead to permanent damage and cause the patient to develop Chronic Kidney Disease, or CKD, which we’ll talk about in the next module.

Causes of Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)

There are three categories of causes of acute kidney injury and it all has to do with the source of the problem.

  • Prerenal
  • Intrarenal
  • Postrenal

Prerenal

So prerenal, pre means before, so the source of the problem is what comes before the kidneys – which means the blood flow into the kidneys. If blood isn’t flowing into the kidneys, not only do they not get perfused and can incur some ischemic damage, but they also can’t filter the blood if it’s not there, right? Some causes of prerenal kidney injury include hypotension, hypovolemia, or any decrease in cardiac output like heart failure or shock.

Intrarenal

Intrarenal means that the source of the problem is coming from within the kidneys themselves – so the blood flow is fine, but there’s been damage to the kidney tissues or cells that are making it not work correctly. Common causes of intrarenal kidney injury are infection, tubular necrosis, nephrotoxic drugs, or damage from contrast dye. That contrast dye is concentrated and sometimes hard to filter out of the kidneys. That’s why you’ll see us give patients extra fluids before they get a contrast scan to help protect the kidneys.

Postrenal

And finally postrenal, as you can guess, is caused by something happening after the kidneys. What usually happens is there’s some sort of infection or obstruction like a stone that causes backflow into the kidneys. The kidneys fill with that fluid because it can’t get out – that’s called hydronephrosis – and it causes damage and decreased kidney function.

So ultimately prerenal and postrenal sources will cause damage to the kidney itself, but we name this based on the original source of the problem. You can also see how a lot of this is preventable – we need to make sure we keep the patient’s blood pressure up, we need to keep them well hydrated, we need to protect their kidneys from damage with those drugs or contrast, and we need to treat infections and remove obstructions as quickly as possible.

Phases of Acute Kidney Injury

So, let’s talk phases – acute kidney injury goes through 4 phases. You really want to try to catch this as early as possible! In onset, what happens is we start seeing a decline in their baseline urine output. Well you know what we want as our minimum is about 30 mL/hr, right? That’s about 720 mL/day. What will happen is they’ll be cruising along at 1200 mL a day, about 50 mL/hr and you’ll notice it goes down to about 30 mL/hr. And you’ll think…no worries, it’s still above that minimum, right? But they actually just dropped their baseline urine output by almost 500 mL a day! Notice these things, guys! Trends are important. So, then as they continue to get worse, they’ll drop into what’s known as the Oliguric phase – this is the acute, sick phase of acute kidney injury, We’ll see their urine output drop to less than 400 mL/day (that’s like 16 mL/hr) and what urine they do produce will be concentrated and dark. Their BUN and Creatinine will start to go up because the kidneys aren’t doing their job, and we’ll see our GFR, or our glomerular filtration rate, drop – because the kidneys aren’t filtering the blood as fast as they should. During this phase, we’re going to see all the symptoms of kidney failure that we’ll talk about in just a second. As their kidneys begin to recover, they’ll move into the diuretic phase. We’ll see their urine output slowly increase and then suddenly they’ll start diuresing like crazy – basically now that their kidneys are working, they’re trying to get rid of all the fluid they’ve been holding onto. Then, when patients get into the recovery phase, we see our GFR normalize and slowly but surely everything brings itself back into alignment.

Symptoms of Oliguria

So, what symptoms are we going to see during that oliguric phase? Well all the symptoms are based on the fact that the kidneys are unable to perform their normal functions. We talked about those in detail in the module intro. So we see azotemia, which is a buildup of nitrogenous waste products, since they can’t filter them out – that’s when we see the BUN and Creatinine elevate.

We see their GFR drop – now I want to stop here because GFR isn’t given enough credit in nursing school – ask anyone what labs they check for the kidneys and they say BUN & creatinine! But – did you know that both BUN and Creatinine can be elevated for other reasons like dehydration or muscle damage? BUT – the GFR literally measures the amount of volume the glomerulus in our kidneys can filter in any given minute. It is highly specific to the kidneys and highly reflective of kidney function! Don’t discount it!

That being said – we already talked about seeing a decrease in urine output and how concentrated it would be. Since they aren’t able to get that fluid out, we actually start to see signs of volume overload in their system. We’ll see significant peripheral edema, and as it progresses, we begin to see pulmonary edema as well – so you’ll hear crackles and they’ll get short of breath.

Because the kidneys aren’t retaining that bicarb buffer like they should, we can see metabolic acidosis. That’s a pH less than 7.35 and a HCO3- less than 22. And we know that non-functioning kidneys can’t regulate electrolytes. We’ll look at this more closely in chronic kidney disease, but what we’ll see is an increased potassium, decreased sodium, increased phosphate, and decreased calcium. And then, of course, if infection was the source, we may see signs of infection.

So what do we do? Well during the oliguric phase, we try to restrict fluids a bit. The last thing we need to do is overload them even more than they already are. We want to work to identify and treat the cause and we’ll give diuretics to get that fluid off. Once they hit the diuretic phase, we want to make sure we balance their fluid status and replace any electrolytes as needed. We especially want to watch potassium and sodium because those can be life threatening if they’re outside of their normal range. If patients don’t seem to be getting better or aren’t responding to treatment, we may need to start them on hemodialysis. We’ll talk more about hemodialysis in the next module.

Nursing Care Plan for Acute Kidney Injury

Our priority nursing concepts for a patient with acute kidney injury are obviously fluid & electrolytes and elimination, but also perfusion because we want to make sure their kidneys are getting the blood flow that they need. Make sure you check out the care plan attached to this lesson for more detailed nursing interventions and rationales.

So let’s recap quickly. Acute kidney injury is sudden onset kidney damage that can be preventable and is usually reversible if caught early enough. We work to identify and treat the cause (whether it’s prerenal, intrarenal, or postrenal) as quickly as possible before permanent damage is done. We’ll see signs of volume overload and electrolyte abnormalities, as well as things like azotemia and metabolic acidosis that tell us the kidneys aren’t doing their job. We want to support those kidney functions by giving electrolytes or bicarb as needed, as well as diuretics, and we know that the patient may require dialysis if they aren’t recovering well.

So that’s it for Acute Kidney Injury, make sure you check out the resources attached to this lesson, as well as the rest of the lessons within this module to learn more. Now, go out and be your best self today. And, as always, Happy nursing!

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Study Plan for Study Skills, Test Taking for the NCLEX® Using Med-Surg (Lewis 10th ed.) designed for Westmoreland County Community College

Concepts Covered:

  • Concepts of Population Health
  • Factors Influencing Community Health
  • Community Health Overview
  • Substance Abuse Disorders
  • Upper GI Disorders
  • Renal Disorders
  • Newborn Care
  • Integumentary Disorders
  • Tissues and Glands
  • Central Nervous System Disorders – Brain
  • Digestive System
  • Urinary Disorders
  • Urinary System
  • Musculoskeletal Trauma
  • Concepts of Mental Health
  • Health & Stress
  • Developmental Theories
  • Fundamentals of Emergency Nursing
  • Communication
  • Basics of NCLEX
  • Test Taking Strategies
  • Prioritization
  • Delegation
  • Emotions and Motivation
  • Integumentary Disorders
  • Legal and Ethical Issues
  • Basic
  • Preoperative Nursing
  • Labor and Delivery
  • Fetal Development
  • Newborn Complications
  • Postpartum Complications
  • Postpartum Care
  • Labor Complications
  • Pregnancy Risks
  • Prenatal Concepts
  • Circulatory System
  • Cardiac Disorders
  • Emergency Care of the Cardiac Patient
  • Vascular Disorders
  • Shock
  • Postoperative Nursing
  • Intraoperative Nursing
  • Oncology Disorders
  • Neurological Emergencies
  • Respiratory Disorders
  • Female Reproductive Disorders
  • Acute & Chronic Renal Disorders
  • Liver & Gallbladder Disorders
  • Lower GI Disorders
  • Disorders of Pancreas
  • Disorders of the Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
  • Disorders of the Adrenal Gland
  • Disorders of the Posterior Pituitary Gland
  • Immunological Disorders
  • Hematologic Disorders
  • EENT Disorders
  • Integumentary Important Points
  • Musculoskeletal Disorders
  • Emergency Care of the Neurological Patient
  • Peripheral Nervous System Disorders
  • Central Nervous System Disorders – Spinal Cord
  • Neurologic and Cognitive Disorders
  • Eating Disorders
  • Noninfectious Respiratory Disorder
  • Respiratory Emergencies
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  • Psychological Emergencies
  • Trauma-Stress Disorders
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  • Cognitive Disorders
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  • Psychotic Disorders
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  • Somatoform Disorders
  • Infectious Disease Disorders
  • Musculoskeletal Disorders
  • Renal and Urinary Disorders
  • Cardiovascular Disorders
  • EENT Disorders
  • Gastrointestinal Disorders
  • Hematologic Disorders
  • Oncologic Disorders
  • Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders
  • Childhood Growth and Development
  • Adulthood Growth and Development
  • Medication Administration
  • Nervous System
  • Dosage Calculations
  • Learning Pharmacology
  • Prefixes
  • Suffixes

Study Plan Lessons

Communicable Diseases
Disasters & Bioterrorism
Cultural Care
Environmental Health
Technology & Informatics
Epidemiology
Health Promotion & Disease Prevention
Head to Toe Nursing Assessment (Physical Exam)
Enteral & Parenteral Nutrition (Diet, TPN)
Specialty Diets (Nutrition)
Blood Glucose Monitoring
Intake and Output (I&O)
Hygiene
Pain and Nonpharmacological Comfort Measures
Bowel Elimination
Urinary Elimination
Complications of Immobility
Patient Positioning
Defense Mechanisms
Overview of Developmental Theories
Abuse
Therapeutic Communication
Overview of the Nursing Process
Triage
Prioritization
Delegation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Nursing
Isolation Precaution Types (PPE)
Fall and Injury Prevention
Fire and Electrical Safety
Brief CPR (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation) Overview
HIPAA
Advance Directives
Legal Considerations
Process of Labor
Fetal Circulation
Fetal Environment
Newborn of HIV+ Mother
Hyperbilirubinemia (Jaundice)
Transient Tachypnea of Newborn
Meconium Aspiration
Babies by Term
Newborn Reflexes
Body System Assessments
Newborn Physical Exam
Postpartum Hemorrhage (PPH)
Mastitis
Initial Care of the Newborn (APGAR)
Breastfeeding
Postpartum Discomforts
Postpartum Physiological Maternal Changes
Dystocia
Precipitous Labor
Preterm Labor
Abruptio Placentae (Placental abruption)
Placenta Previa
Prolapsed Umbilical Cord
Fetal Heart Monitoring (FHM)
Leopold Maneuvers
Mechanisms of Labor
Fetal Development
Infections in Pregnancy
Preeclampsia: Signs, Symptoms, Nursing Care, and Magnesium Sulfate
Gestational HTN (Hypertension)
Hydatidiform Mole (Molar pregnancy)
Ectopic Pregnancy
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Gestational Diabetes (GDM)
Nutrition in Pregnancy
Chorioamnionitis
Antepartum Testing
Discomforts of Pregnancy
Physiological Changes
Maternal Risk Factors
Fundal Height Assessment for Nurses
Gravidity and Parity (G&Ps, GTPAL)
Gestation & Nägele’s Rule: Estimating Due Dates
Family Planning & Contraception
Menstrual Cycle
Hemodynamics
Normal Sinus Rhythm
Performing Cardiac (Heart) Monitoring
Preload and Afterload
Sinus Bradycardia
Sinus Tachycardia
Atrial Fibrillation (A Fib)
Premature Ventricular Contraction (PVC)
Ventricular Tachycardia (V-tach)
Ventricular Fibrillation (V Fib)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Myocardial Infarction (MI)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Heart Failure (CHF)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Angina
Pacemakers
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Hypertension (HTN)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Cardiomyopathy
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Thrombophlebitis (clot)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Hypovolemic Shock
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Cardiogenic Shock
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Distributive Shock
Discharge (DC) Teaching After Surgery
Postoperative (Postop) Complications
Post-Anesthesia Recovery
Malignant Hyperthermia
Moderate Sedation
Local Anesthesia
Preoperative (Preop)Assessment
General Anesthesia
Preoperative (Preop) Nursing Priorities
Preoperative (Preop) Education
Informed Consent
Biopsy
Ultrasound
Echocardiogram (Cardiac Echo)
Cardiovascular Angiography
Cerebral Angiography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
X-Ray (Xray)
Computed Tomography (CT)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Menopause
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Endometriosis
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)
Dialysis & Other Renal Points
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Chronic Kidney (Renal) Disease (CKD)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Glomerulonephritis
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Cirrhosis (Liver Disease, Hepatic encephalopathy, Portal Hypertension, Esophageal Varices)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Acute Kidney (Renal) Injury (AKI)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Hepatitis (Liver Disease)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Cholecystitis
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Crohn’s Disease
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Ulcerative Colitis(UC)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Appendicitis
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Pancreatitis
Hyperglycaemic Hyperosmolar Non-ketotic syndrome (HHNS)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)
Diabetes Management
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Hypothyroidism
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Hyperthyroidism
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Cushings Syndrome
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate antidiuretic Hormone Secretion)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Diabetes Insipidus (DI)
Addisons Disease
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Anaphylaxis
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Oncology Important Points
Lymphoma
Leukemia
Blood Transfusions (Administration)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Glaucoma
Macular Degeneration
Hearing Loss
Fractures
Cataracts
Integumentary (Skin) Important Points
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Osteoarthritis (OA)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Osteoporosis
Burn Injuries
Pressure Ulcers/Pressure injuries (Braden scale)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Herpes Zoster – Shingles
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Meningitis
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Seizure
Seizure Therapeutic Management
Seizure Assessment
Seizure Causes (Epilepsy, Generalized)
Stroke Nursing Care (CVA)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Ischemic Stroke (CVA)
Stroke Therapeutic Management (CVA)
Stroke Assessment (CVA)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Hemorrhagic Stroke (CVA)
Miscellaneous Nerve Disorders
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Parkinsons
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
Cerebral Perfusion Pressure CPP
Intracranial Pressure ICP
Adjunct Neuro Assessments
Levels of Consciousness (LOC)
Routine Neuro Assessments
Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1C)
Glucose Lab Values
Urinalysis (UA)
Creatinine (Cr) Lab Values
Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Lab Values
Ammonia (NH3) Lab Values
Cholesterol (Chol) Lab Values
Albumin Lab Values
Coagulation Studies (PT, PTT, INR)
Platelets (PLT) Lab Values
White Blood Cell (WBC) Lab Values
Hematocrit (Hct) Lab Values
Red Blood Cell (RBC) Lab Values
Hemoglobin (Hbg) Lab Values
Chloride-Cl (Hyperchloremia, Hypochloremia)
Sodium-Na (Hypernatremia, Hyponatremia)
Potassium-K (Hyperkalemia, Hypokalemia)
Hypertonic Solutions (IV solutions)
Hypotonic Solutions (IV solutions)
Isotonic Solutions (IV solutions)
Base Excess & Deficit
Metabolic Alkalosis
Metabolic Acidosis (interpretation and nursing diagnosis)
Respiratory Alkalosis
Respiratory Acidosis (interpretation and nursing interventions)
ABG (Arterial Blood Gas) Interpretation-The Basics
ABGs Nursing Normal Lab Values
Chest Tube Management
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of Pneumonia
Artificial Airways
Airway Suctioning
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology of COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Influenza (Flu)
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Tuberculosis (TB)
Lung Sounds
Alveoli & Atelectasis
Gas Exchange
Nursing Care and Pathophysiology for Asthma
Suicidal Behavior
Eating Disorders (Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa)
Alcohol Withdrawal (Addiction)
Grief and Loss
Paranoid Disorders
Personality Disorders
Cognitive Impairment Disorders
Mood Disorders (Bipolar)
Depression
Schizophrenia
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Somatoform
Dissociative Disorders
Anxiety
Pertussis – Whooping Cough
Varicella – Chickenpox
Mumps
Rubeola – Measles
Scoliosis
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Spina Bifida – Neural Tube Defect (NTD)
Meningitis
Enuresis
Nephrotic Syndrome
Cerebral Palsy (CP)
Mixed (Cardiac) Heart Defects
Obstructive Heart (Cardiac) Defects
Defects of Decreased Pulmonary Blood Flow
Defects of Increased Pulmonary Blood Flow
Congenital Heart Defects (CHD)
Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
Asthma
Acute Otitis Media (AOM)
Bronchiolitis and Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)
Tonsillitis
Conjunctivitis
Constipation and Encopresis (Incontinence)
Intussusception
Appendicitis
Celiac Disease
Pediatric Gastrointestinal Dysfunction – Diarrhea
Vomiting
Hemophilia
Nephroblastoma
Fever
Dehydration
Sickle Cell Anemia
Burn Injuries
Pediculosis Capitis
Impetigo
Eczema
Growth & Development – School Age- Adolescent
Growth & Development – Preschoolers
Growth & Development – Toddlers
Growth & Development – Infants
Care of the Pediatric Patient
Vitals (VS) and Assessment
Vasopressin
TCAs
SSRIs
Proton Pump Inhibitors
Vancomycin (Vancocin) Nursing Considerations
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro) Nursing Considerations
Metronidazole (Flagyl) Nursing Considerations
Anti-Infective – Penicillins and Cephalosporins
Parasympatholytics (Anticholinergics) Nursing Considerations
NSAIDs
Nitro Compounds
MAOIs
Hydralazine (Apresoline) Nursing Considerations
Insulin
Magnesium Sulfate
HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitors (Statins)
Histamine 2 Receptor Blockers
Histamine 1 Receptor Blockers
Epoetin Alfa
Diuretics (Loop, Potassium Sparing, Thiazide, Furosemide/Lasix)
Corticosteroids
Benzodiazepines
Cardiac Glycosides
Calcium Channel Blockers
Parasympathomimetics (Cholinergics) Nursing Considerations
Sympathomimetics (Alpha (Clonodine) & Beta (Albuterol) Agonists)
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Atypical Antipsychotics
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers
ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) Inhibitors
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System
Complex Calculations (Dosage Calculations/Med Math)
IV Infusions (Solutions)
Injectable Medications
Oral Medications
Basics of Calculations
Dimensional Analysis Nursing (Dosage Calculations/Med Math)
The SOCK Method – K
The SOCK Method – C
The SOCK Method – O
The SOCK Method – S
The SOCK Method – Overview
6 Rights of Medication Administration
Essential NCLEX Meds by Class
12 Points to Answering Pharmacology Questions
Therapeutic Drug Levels (Digoxin, Lithium, Theophylline, Phenytoin)
54 Common Medication Prefixes and Suffixes